- A black and white division of the world into “ours” and the “alien” other;
- Epithets that imply more than they describe;
- Constant assertions that those supporting Putin not only are numerous but united (results of manipulated and flawed polls are frequently used to support such assertions);
- Empty declarations that mean nothing but that appear to promise or justify everything;
- Playing games with cause and effect, often reversing their true order;
- A false effect stated as if being a priori, requiring no proof;
- A vicious circle or tautology in which the second part of an assertion is simply a repetition of the first;
- Confusing the part and the whole by focusing on only one part of something such as liberals within the opposition;
- Creating false dilemmas that don’t exist;
- Careful preparation of headlines which are the only thing most people pay attention to;
- Citations to experts, often false and even more often out of context;
- Claiming the media say when in fact only one media outlet does;
- Using weasel words like “so-called” or “it would appear” to give the appearance of objectivity;To illustrate #13, compare the following statements: «Friends of Putin were mentioned in an anti-corruption investigation» and «Some alleged Putin friends were purportedly mentioned in a so-called anti-corruption investigation».
- Outright falsification; and
- Conspiracy theories and suggestion of hidden motives.
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